Shamsuddin Iltutmish was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibek. His father was an influential noble of the Ilbari tribe of the Turks. Being handsome and intelligent, Iltutmish aroused the jealousy of his half-brothers, who deceitfully handed him over to a slave trader. After passing through many hands, he was ultimately purchased by Qutubuddin Aibek in Delhi at an exorbitant price of one lakh jitals.
Iltutmish appears to have received a good education and acquired extensive knowledge of the Islamic world during his early days of adversity. This enabled him to rise quickly, becoming the amir-i-shikar and later the son-in-law of his master within a decade. He served as the governor of the iqtas of Gwalior and Baran (Bulandshahr) in succession. In 1206, he was entrusted with the charge of Badaun as one of Qutubuddin Aibek's most trusted lieutenants.
Iltutmish was manumitted by Qutubuddin Aibek long before the latter received formal manumission himself. This occurred in 1205–06 at the insistence of Muhammad Ghori, who was deeply impressed by Iltutmish’s performance in the campaign against the Khokhars. This is particularly noteworthy because Muhammad Ghori never issued formal letters of manumission for his own slave generals, including Tajuddin Yaldoz, Nasiruddin Qabacha, and Qutubuddin Aibek.
The Turkish nobility of Delhi did not approve of the hereditary succession of Aram Shah, an incompetent and unpopular ruler. They invited Iltutmish from Badaun to assume leadership as Sultan. Aram Shah refused to abdicate but was ultimately defeated and deposed by Iltutmish in 1211.
Real Founder of the Delhi Sultanate
Iltutmish was the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi his seat of governance in preference to Lahore and proved to be a very strong and capable ruler who enjoyed a long reign of twenty-six years. He strengthened the foundations of the infant Turkish state in northern India by saving it from internal forces of disintegration and external dangers. From 1211 onward, the centre of political gravity shifted from Kanauj to Delhi, which came to occupy a premier position as the capital of Hindustan. Delhi continued to enjoy this privileged status throughout the medieval period for over five hundred years.
Rival Turkish Nobles
The weak, though brief, rule of Aram Shah had encouraged disruptive and rebellious tendencies among the Turkish nobles, threatening the disintegration of the newly founded Turkish state in India. In spite of his victory over Aram Shah and the popular support of the Turkish nobility of Delhi, Iltutmish's accession to the throne did not go unchallenged. Nasiruddin Qabacha, the governor of Uchh (Sind) and Multan, occupied Lahore as well and declared his independence. Ali Mardan Khalji, who had succeeded to the governorship of Bihar and Bengal after the death of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1206, also stopped sending tribute to Delhi. Tajuddin Yaldoz (the father-in-law of Qutubuddin Aibek), now the Sultan of Ghazni, tried to assert his political dominance over Iltutmish by sending him the royal canopy (chhatr) and robes of honour at the time of his accession. As a shrewd diplomat, Iltutmish tolerated the insult for a short while, though he never permitted Yaldoz to encroach upon his Indian possessions.
Liquidation of Tajuddin Yaldoz (1215–16)
As luck would have it, Yaldoz was soon defeated and driven out of Ghazni by Alauddin Muhammad, the Khwarizm Shah. He retreated toward the Punjab and laid claim to the throne of Delhi on the basis of being the senior-most Ghurid officer. Iltutmish inflicted a crushing defeat on him at Tarain; Yaldoz was taken prisoner and put to death after a brief confinement at Badaun. This was a great achievement for Iltutmish, as it eliminated one of his most serious rivals and also saved the Turkish Sultanate of Delhi from the foreign domination of Ghazni.
Defeat of Nasiruddin Qabacha (1217 A.D.)
After Yaldoz’s defeat at the hands of Iltutmish, Nasiruddin Qabacha occupied Lahore once again. However, when challenged by Iltutmish, who led a large army, he retreated toward Multan. Iltutmish pursued him relentlessly and defeated him at Mansura, on the banks of the river Chenab. However, Iltutmish refrained from marching upon Sind due to his concern over safeguarding the northwestern frontier amid the rapidly deteriorating political situation in Central Asia. As a result, Qabacha continued to rule over Sind almost as an independent ruler until his death in 1227.
Mongols on the Northwestern Frontier (1220–24)
In 1220–21, Iltutmish received alarming news of the Mongol menace in Central Asia. They were nomadic hordes who descended from "the uplands of Tartary" and spread fire and sword across the Islamic world under the leadership of Genghis Khan. The Mongols had not yet entered the fold of Islam; they were shamanists by faith, which was a variant form of Buddhism.
Alauddin Muhammad, the Khwarizm Shah, one of the greatest Muslim monarchs of his age, had to eat humble pie at their hands; he fled toward the Caspian, while his eldest son, Jalaluddin Mangbarni, escaped to Afghanistan. The latter was pursued closely by Genghis Khan. Mangbarni entered the Indus Valley and sought help from Iltutmish against the Mongols. However, Iltutmish put his envoy to death and refused to assist the Khwarizm prince, instead sending a diplomatic reply that the climate of India would not suit him. At the same time, he resisted Mangbarni's advance toward Delhi by demonstrating his military strength. Mangbarni forged an alliance with the Khokhars of the Salt Range by marrying the daughter of their chief and invaded Sind, where he clashed with Qabacha—to the great relief of Iltutmish.
Iltutmish ensured that Delhi was not drawn into Central Asian politics. Through his diplomatic maneuvering, he saved himself from the wrath of Genghis Khan and protected the country from the devastation of the Mongol hordes. The scorching heat of the Indian summer was intolerable for the Mongols, who retraced their steps to Central Asia. However, some of them settled beyond the Indus and later became a source of nuisance for the Sultanate. Having failed to establish a foothold on Indian soil, Mangbarni also left for Khorasan, his homeland, in 1224. Iltutmish remained so fearful of Mongol aggression that he refrained from launching any military expeditions into western Punjab or Sind until after the death of Genghis Khan in 1227.
Had Genghis Khan decided to march upon India in 1220–21, the infant Turkish Sultanate of Delhi would have collapsed and disappeared forever.
Reconquest of Multan and Sind (1227-28)
Iltutmish heaved a sigh of relief when he heard of the death of Genghis Khan in 1227. It was then that he launched an offensive against Nasiruddin Qabacha from two sides—Lahore and Delhi. Multan and Uch were captured, and Qabacha was besieged in the fort of Bhakkar on the banks of the Indus. Surrounded on all sides by the enemy and completely exhausted, Qabacha made a final attempt to escape by plunging into the river but drowned. The Sumra ruler of the Debal principality hastened to acknowledge the suzerainty of Iltutmish soon after. Iltutmish placed the provinces of Multan and Sind under the charge of two separate governors.
Reconquest of Bihar and Bengal
At the time of Iltutmish's succession to the throne, Ali Mardan had set himself up as an independent ruler of Bengal with his capital at Lakhnauti. Due to his oppressive rule, he was put to death by his own rebellious officers, who then raised Hasanuddin Iwaz Khalji to the throne. The latter assumed the title of Sultan Ghiyasuddin and proved to be a capable ruler. He conquered Bihar, suppressed rebellious Hindu chieftains, and gained recognition for his public welfare activities.
In 1225-26, southern Bihar was recovered by Iltutmish, who appointed Malik Alauddin Jani as its governor. Ghiyasuddin also accepted the nominal suzerainty of Delhi. However, soon after Iltutmish's return, Ghiyasuddin repudiated the agreement and reoccupied Bihar. In response, Nasiruddin Mahmud, the eldest son of Iltutmish and then governor of Oudh, launched a surprise attack on Lakhnauti in 1226 and conquered it. Ghiyasuddin was defeated and executed.
Iltutmish appointed his son as the viceroy of Bihar and Bengal, but the latter’s sudden death led to another uprising in Lakhnauti. Iltutmish personally suppressed the rebellion in 1230-31. To establish firm control over the region, he appointed two separate governors—one for Bengal and the other for Bihar.
Conflict with the Rajputs
The Hindus of the Gangetic valley and central India were not reconciled to the loss of their independence. Some of their leaders took up arms against the Turkish forces of occupation immediately after the death of Muhammad Ghori. Qutubuddin Aibek avoided direct confrontation with them and lost control of towns like Kanauj, Benaras, Kalinjar, and Gwalior. Aram Shah's weak rule further encouraged the Rajputs to reconquer their lost territories, and the Turkish armies were expelled from Rajputana.
For fifteen years, Iltutmish was unable to act against them due to conflicts with rival Turkish nobles and preoccupation with northwestern frontier issues. However, in 1226, he launched a full-fledged campaign against the Rajputs. Ranthambore was recovered from the Chauhans first, followed by Mandsaur, the headquarters of the Parmars. The Chauhan ruler of Jalore was forced to acknowledge Turkish suzerainty.
Thereafter, the territories of Bayana, Ajmer, and Sambhar were reconquered after several bloody battles with the Rajputs. A significant part of Jodhpur, including the town of Nagaur, was annexed by 1230. The Parihar ruler of Gwalior was subjugated in 1230-31 after a year-long siege.
Iltutmish led an attack on Nagda, the capital of the Guhilots, but suffered a defeat at the hands of Rana Kshetra Singh. His army also suffered heavy losses against the Chalukyas of Gujarat. Nevertheless, he conducted an expedition into Malwa in 1234-35 and plundered the towns of Bhilsa and Ujjain.
The campaign in the Gangetic valley was launched under the charge of Nasiruddin Mahmud, the eldest son of Iltutmish. The territories of Badaun, Kanauj, and Benaras were conquered from the Hindu chieftains. Katehar (Rohilkhand), with its capital Ahichhatra, was also conquered after a long struggle. More than a lakh of Turkish soldiers are said to have lost their lives in this campaign.
In 1235, Iltutmish made an attempt to bring the Khokhars under his subjugation. The town of Baniyan, which constituted the nucleus of their power in the Salt Range, was taken, albeit the Khokhars showed no signs of appeasement. Exhausted by continuous warfare, Iltutmish fell sick, returned to Delhi, and breathed his last in April 1236. He was buried in the magnificent tomb that he had constructed for himself in Delhi.
An Estimate
Iltutmish was not a great administrator; he created no civil institutions. His was a military dictatorship like that of Aibek, but with the difference that all the reins of government were concentrated in his own hands. Iltutmish laid the foundation of an absolute monarchy of the Turks in northern India. He made all the key appointments of central ministers and regional military governors himself. The wazir (prime minister), sadr-i-jahan (head of ecclesiastical affairs), and the chief qazi held office at his pleasure and were directly responsible to him. He did not permit the Turkish nobility to interfere in state affairs beyond certain limits. The disaffected and insubordinate Ghurid (Muizzi) or Qutbi officers were gradually downgraded or eliminated.
Iltutmish created an entirely new class of ruling elites, which comprised his own Turkish slave officers, headed by their forty powerful military leaders—nicknamed the Chalisa (Chihalgani or Chehalgan), 'The Forty.' They held charge of the iqtas or regions into which the kingdom was divided and wielded great influence at the court.
Iltutmish secured a letter of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah of Baghdad in February 1229, who bestowed upon him the titles of 'Sultan of Hindustan' and 'Deputy of the Leader of the Faithful' (Nasir Amir-ul-Mu’minin). This accorded legal recognition and spiritual sanction to the Delhi Sultanate as a distinct entity, independent of Ghazni. It also strengthened his position and ensured the succession of his offspring to the throne. All those who had hitherto dubbed him a usurper and cast aspersions on his rule were silenced.
Iltutmish was thus the first legal sovereign of the Indian Turks and the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. The investiture ceremony was celebrated in Delhi with great rejoicing.
Iltutmish strengthened the forces of law and order in the state, allowed local administrative bodies to function as before, and administered even-handed justice according to the Islamic standards of those days. He introduced a purely Arabic currency of gold and silver; his standard silver tanka weighed 175 grains.
Though an orthodox Sunni and devoted to the faith, Iltutmish was not a fanatic. He persecuted the Ismaili Shias of Delhi, and his treatment towards the Hindus was harsh but not cruel. He desecrated the magnificent Hindu temples at Bhilsa and Ujjain, but he did not resort to idol-breaking just to satisfy the whims of his fanatic co-religionists. He adopted a policy of moderation towards the Hindus as a measure of political expediency and tried to win their cooperation in running the administration. He encouraged Muslims to settle in Hindu habitats, particularly in mountainous and forest regions, to exert pressure on the Hindus and discourage them from harboring rebellious feelings towards the Sultanate.
Iltutmish was a patron of art and learning. Because of the Mongol upheavals in Central Asia, hundreds of Muslim theologians, scholars, and artists fled their hearths and homes and sought shelter in Delhi; Amir Khusrau's father was one of them. Iltutmish extended liberal patronage to them and enriched the cultural life of the ruling elite. He completed the construction of Qutub Minar and enjoyed his association with the Sufi saints of the day.
Iltutmish was a man of courage and foresight. He unified the Turkish leadership under one central authority and saved the infant Sultanate from disintegration. He protected it from the fury of the Mongols and gave it a legal and independent status in the comity of Islamic states. He was an empire-builder who strove to accomplish the unfinished task of Qutubuddin Aibek in laying the foundations of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Turkish Power-Politics and the Problem of Succession
There was no fixed law of succession in Islamic polity. Occupation of the throne depended on the general law of nature—'the survival of the fittest.' It was, perhaps, the single major factor that led to the rapid expansion of Muslim arms in various parts of the world; it afforded ample opportunities to ambitious and capable military generals to carve out vast empires for themselves. It facilitated the rapid spread of Turkish arms in northern India under the leadership of Muhammad Ghori and his brilliant slave officers. Qutubuddin Aibek laid claim to his master's heritage on this very account.
The concept of an all-powerful hereditary Sultan among the Turkish nobility of India was still in its initial stage of evolution. The successors of Muhammad Ghori, generally called the Muizzi or Ghurid nobles, could roughly be classified into three categories. The Ghurids proper were the kinsmen of Muhammad Ghori and members of his ancestral clan. The Tazik Turks were freemen—Turkish immigrants who had come to India by choice and sought the patronage of Muhammad Ghori and his lieutenants; they constituted a microscopic section of the Turkish nobility. The third category comprised the Turkish slave officers of Muhammad Ghori; they were the most numerous and influential among the nobility. Muhammad Ghori himself had greater faith in his slave officers and showed preference for them over others; Qutubuddin Aibek, who inherited his Indian possessions, belonged to this category.
The Rule of 'the Forty'
In the struggle for political dominance, the Turkish slave officers of Qutubuddin Aibek, called the Qutbi nobles, acquired a premier position among the nobility during the reign of their master. Shamsuddin Iltutmish was their chief representative. Iltutmish, in turn, created a new class of Turkish nobility comprising his own slaves, whom he promoted as officers. They were referred to as the Shamsi nobles, named after their master.
During the heyday of Iltutmish's reign, forty of these slave officers constituted the top leadership among the Shamsi nobles. They held all the important portfolios as state ministers and regional military governors, earning the nickname Chalisa ('the Forty'). They helped Iltutmish consolidate the Delhi Sultanate.
It was primarily due to the loyalty and unwavering support of his slave officers that Iltutmish felt secure on the throne and considered ensuring the succession of his children, thereby making the monarchy a hereditary institution. However, this was perhaps too much to expect from his ex-slaves, who constituted the real power behind the throne. Their loyalty to Iltutmish was unquestioned, yet they considered themselves partners in the state enterprise, which was the result of their collective contributions. They, therefore, could not reconcile themselves to the principle of hereditary monarchy over that of selection based on merit and capability—the very principle on which Iltutmish himself had once acquired the throne.
This is why, after the death of Iltutmish, a grim political struggle ensued between 'the Forty' and the heirs of the deceased Sultan. Court intrigues and revolts led to depositions and murders in quick succession, with 'the Forty' playing the role of kingmakers. Ultimately, one of their leaders, Ghiyasuddin Balban, became Sultan in 1266. The period from 1236 to 1266 is, therefore, known as the "Era of the Rule of the Forty" in the history of the Delhi Sultanate.
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