The Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1819)

The Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1819) were a series of three conflicts fought between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. These wars played a significant role in shaping the history of India, as they marked the decline of the Maratha Empire and the rise of British dominance in the Indian subcontinent.

The Maratha Confederacy

The word "Confederacy" is derived from the Anglo-French word Confederacie, which means a league or union, whether of states or individuals. After the death of Shivaji in 1680, there was no great leader among the Marathas who could unite them. Sahu, the grandson of Shivaji, was under Mughal custody (from 1689 to 1707), which made him weak, passive, and dependent on others. The emergence of the Peshwa as the de facto ruler is directly linked to the weak character of Sahu. When Balaji Vishwanath served as Peshwa (1713–1720), he turned the king into a puppet and made his own position hereditary.

However, the Maratha Confederacy truly began during the Peshwaship of Baji Rao I (1720–1740), son of Balaji Vishwanath, when the Maratha Empire expanded into both North and South India. The Peshwa placed large territories under the control of his subordinates, such as Gwalior under Ramoji Sindhia, Baroda under Damaji Gaekwad, Indore under Malhar Rao Holkar, and Nagpur under Raghuji Bhonsle. The Peshwa's seat was at Poona (Pune), while Sahu was reduced to a nominal king. The confederacy was strictly controlled by two Peshwas—Baji Rao I (1720–1740) and Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761). However, the defeat of the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat (January 14, 1761) by the Afghan army of Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Peshwa's position significantly, leaving him dependent on Nana Fadnavis and other Maratha chiefs.

The Maratha Confederacy was essentially a system for collecting and distributing "dues." The Maratha Sardars and soldiers were primarily focused on these dues. They collected Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from various territories. The records and distribution of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were a constant source of contention among the Maratha Sardars, often leading to conflict. Internal disputes, jealousies, and rivalries among the Maratha Sardars were significant factors in the decline of the Maratha kingdom.

The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)

The First Anglo-Maratha War began when Raghunath Rao, after killing Peshwa Narayan Rao, claimed the position of Peshwa. However, the widow of Narayan Rao gave birth to Madhav Rao Narayan. The Maratha Sardars, led by Nana Fadnavis, accepted the minor Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa. In search of support, Raghunath Rao concluded the Treaty of Surat with the English at Surat on March 7, 1775.

Treaty of Surat

• The English agreed to assist Raghunath Rao with a force of 2,500 men.
• Raghunath Rao agreed to cede Salsette and Bassein to the English.
• The Marathas would not raid Bengal or the Carnatic region.
• As security, Raghunath Rao deposited six lakhs.
• Certain areas of Surat and Bharuch were to be handed over to the English.
• If Raghunath Rao (or Raghoba) decided to enter into a pact with Poona, the English would be involved.

The Calcutta Council, which had gained more authority under the Regulating Act of 1773, overruled the governments of Bombay and Madras. The Council condemned the activities of the Bombay Government as "dangerous," "unauthorised," and "unjust," and rejected the Treaty of Surat. It sent Lieutenant Upton to Poona, where he concluded the Treaty of Purandhar on March 1, 1776.

Treaty of Purandhar

• The English and the Marathas would maintain peace.
• The English East India Company would retain Salsette.
• Raghunath Rao would go to Gujarat, and Poona would give him Rs. 2,500 per month as a pension.

This treaty, however, was not acceptable to the Bombay Government, and Poona was not interested in its implementation either. In the meantime, the American War of Independence (1776–81) began, with the French supporting the Americans against the English. The French, old rivals of the English East India Company, came closer to the Poona Darbar. Concerned about this political development, the Court of Directors of the English East India Company rejected the Treaty of Purandhar. The Government of Bombay welcomed this, while the Calcutta Council felt insulted. The Bombay Government renewed its ties with Raghunath Rao (as per the Treaty of Surat) and sent a British troop to Surat in November 1778. However, the British were defeated, and the Bombay Government was forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon (1779) with the Poona Darbar.

Treaty of Wadgaon

• The Bombay Government would return all the territories it had occupied after 1773 to the Marathas.
• The Bombay Government would stop the English army coming from Bengal.
• Sindhia would receive some income from Bharuch.

Once again, this treaty caused a rift between the Calcutta Government and the Bombay Government. Warren Hastings, the Governor-General (1773–85), rejected the Convention of Wadgaon. An army led by Goddard came from Bengal and captured Ahmedabad (February 1780) and Bassein (December 1780). However, the English were defeated at Poona (April 1781). Another British army, led by Captain Popham, came from Calcutta, captured Gwalior (August 3, 1780), and defeated Sindhia at Sipri (February 16, 1781). Sindhia agreed to mediate between the English and the Poona Darbar, leading to the Treaty of Salbai on May 17, 1782.

Treaty of Salbai

• The British would no longer support Raghunath Rao, but he would receive a pension from Poona, the headquarters of the Peshwa.
• Salsette and Elephanta were given to the English.
• Sindhia received land to the west of the Yamuna.
• The Marathas and the English agreed to return the remaining areas to each other.

The Treaty of Salbai restored the status quo. It benefitted the Company, as it ensured peace with the Marathas for the next twenty years. This allowed the British to focus their energy and resources on their fiercest enemy in India—Mysore.

The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–06)

The internal conflict of the Maratha Confederacy brought them once again to the verge of war. The Peshwa, Baji Rao II, after killing Vithuji Holkar, the brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar, fled from Pune. Holkar installed Vinayak Rao as Peshwa at Pune. Baji Rao came to Bassein and signed the Treaty of Bassein with the English on December 31, 1802. The Company, always in search of such situations, made the Peshwa virtually a puppet.

Treaty of Bassein

• The English would help the Peshwa with 600 troops and artillery.
• The Peshwa agreed to cede to the Company territories yielding an income of 26 lakhs of rupees. These territories included Gujarat, areas south of the Tapti River, territories between the Tapti and Narmada rivers, and some territories near the Tungabhadra River.
• The Peshwa promised not to employ any Europeans in his army other than the English.
• The Peshwa would give up his claim over Surat.
• The Peshwa would not establish foreign relations with other states without English approval.
• The Peshwa would settle all disputes, if any, with the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Gaekwad of Baroda through the Company’s mediation.

The Peshwa, with the help of Arthur Wellesley, entered Pune on May 13, 1803, and captured it. However, the Treaty of Bassein was perceived as a great insult by other Maratha chiefs. Daulat Rao Sindhia and Raghuji Bhonsle joined forces against the British. Instead of bringing peace, this treaty brought war.

The war began in August 1803 in both the northern and southern regions of the Maratha kingdom. The Northern Command was led by General Lake and the Southern Command by Arthur Wellesley. The British fought in Gujarat, Bundelkhand, and Orissa. Their strategy was to engage all the Maratha chiefs at different locations, preventing them from uniting. On September 23, 1803, Arthur Wellesley defeated the joint army of Sindhia and Bhonsle at Assaye near Aurangabad. Gwalior fell on December 15, 1803.

In the north, General Lake captured Aligarh in August, Delhi in September, and Agra in October 1803. Sindhia was defeated again at Laswari (November 1803) and lost the territory south of the Chambal River. The English also captured Cuttack and succeeded in Gujarat and Bundelkhand.

This humiliating defeat forced Bhonsle and Sindhia to conclude treaties similar to the one signed by the Peshwa. On December 17, 1803, Bhonsle signed the Treaty of Deogaon at Deogaon, and on December 30, 1803, Sindhia signed the Treaty of Suraj Arjun Gaon at Suraj Arjun Gaon. Bhonsle ceded Cuttack, Balasore, and the western part of the Wardha River to the British. Sindhia ceded Jaipur, Jodhpur, north of Gohad, Ahmadnagar, Bharuch, Ajanta, and all territories between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers. Both agreed that they would seek English assistance in resolving disputes with the Nizam and the Peshwa. They also agreed not to harbor any enemies of the English, to allow a British Resident in their capitals, and to accept the Treaty of Bassein.

Holkar, who had remained aloof from the war, started fighting in April 1804. After defeating Colonel Monson in the passes of Mukund Dara near Kota, he advanced toward Delhi and made an unsuccessful attempt to seize it. He was defeated at Deeg on November 13 and at Farrukhabad on November 17, 1804. Finally, he, too, concluded the Treaty of Rajpurghat with the British on January 7, 1806, at Rajpurghat. He agreed to give up claims to territories north of the Chambal River, Bundelkhand, and the Peshwa’s territories. He also promised not to employ any Europeans other than the English in his kingdom. In return, the British promised not to interfere in the southern territories beyond the Chambal River.

The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18)

The Third Anglo-Maratha War was partly related to British imperialistic designs in India and partly to the nature of the Maratha state. In 1813, the Charter Act was passed, which ended the monopoly of the English East India Company. All English companies were now allowed to sell their products in India and purchase raw materials from India. The British capitalists were in search of a greater market. Annexation of Indian territories meant a big market for British goods in India and cheap raw materials for British industries. English cotton mills were heavily dependent on Indian cotton, and the Deccan region was famous for cotton production. The policy of 'non-interference' with Indian states was no longer relevant.

The Company was in search of an excuse to wage war against the Marathas. The issue of the Pindaris provided an opportunity. The Pindaris, who consisted of many castes and classes, were attached to the Maratha armies. They worked as mercenaries, mostly under the Maratha chiefs. But once the Maratha chiefs became weak and failed to employ them regularly, they started plundering different territories, including those under the control of the Company or its allies. The Company accused the Marathas of giving them shelter and encouragement. Lord Hastings, the Governor-General (1813–1823), made a plan to surround the Pindaris in Malwa with a large army and to prevent the Marathas from assisting them. By the end of 1817 and early 1818, the Pindaris were hunted across the Chambal. Thousands of them were killed. Their leaders, Amir Khan and Karim Khan, surrendered, while the most dangerous, Chitu, fled into the jungles of Asirgarh.

The direct conflict between the English and the Marathas, however, started when Gangadhar Shastri, the ambassador of Gaekwad, was killed by Trimbakji, the Prime Minister of the Peshwa. The English Resident, Elphinstone, demanded that the Peshwa hand over Trimbakji, but he escaped. Colonel Smith besieged Pune and forced the Peshwa to sign the Pune Pact (June 13, 1817). The Maratha confederacy was dissolved, and Peshwa's leadership was brought to an end. The fort of Ahmadnagar, Bundelkhand, and a vast territory in Malwa were ceded to the Company. The Peshwa agreed to keep English troops at Pune and his family under British custody until Trimbakji was arrested or surrendered.

The Pune Pact was, once again, humiliating for the Marathas. The Peshwa, too, was not happy. He began plotting revenge, burned the British Residency, and waged war against the English. He was defeated at Kirki in November 1817. In the same month, Appaji, the Bhonsle chief, was also defeated at Sitabaldi. In the Battle of Mahidpur (December 1817), Holkar was defeated and compelled to sign a treaty at Mandsor (January 1818). He had to cede Khandesh and the vast territory across the river Narmada.

The Peshwa continued the war, but he was defeated again at Koregaon (January 1818) and finally at Ashti (February 1818). He surrendered. A small part of his territory was given to the descendants of Shivaji, based at Satara, while a large part was annexed, including Pune. The post of Peshwa was abolished, and Baji Rao II was sent to Bithur (near Kanpur). An annual pension was fixed for him. With this defeat, British supremacy over the Maratha kingdom was firmly established, and the hopeful successor of the Mughals lost all hope.

Causes of the Maratha Defeat

1. Nature of the Maratha State: The Maratha state was never stable. An English historian referred to their state as a 'Robber's state.' After the death of Shivaji (1680), various Maratha chiefs carved out their independent kingdoms. During the Peshwaship of Baji Rao I (1720–1740), they were loosely attached to the Peshwa, but after the debacle of Panipat (January 14, 1761), they became enemies of each other and plundered each other's territories.

2. Unstable Economy: The success of any kingdom depends heavily on its resources. The regular civil wars had ruined the Marathas' agriculture, trade, and industry. Plunder became their main source of income. The Maratha chiefs were often in debt and failed to develop a stable economic policy. War and plunder became the most sought-after jobs for Maratha youths, but most of the time their chiefs struggled to pay them. Soldiers often shifted their loyalty, with many joining the Company's army, where they received at least a regular salary.

3. Weak Rulers: Most of the Maratha chiefs, with few exceptions, were not capable of leading the Marathas. Rulers like Daulat Rao Sindhia were lovers of luxury. Additionally, Maratha rulers were jealous of one another and constantly conspired against each other, which further benefited the Company's cause.

4. Inferior Military Organisation: The Marathas failed to adopt modern techniques of warfare. Except for Mahadji Sindhia, no Maratha chief gave importance to artillery. Even he was dependent on the French for assistance. The Poona Government established an artillery department, but it hardly functioned effectively. The Marathas also abandoned their traditional guerrilla warfare tactics, which had previously baffled the Mughals. Furthermore, there was no motivation among the Marathas' mercenary soldiers; a loss in battle merely meant a temporary loss of employment for them.

5. Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage: Before any war, the British always formed alliances and isolated their enemies. This was a policy adopted by most European nations in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the English executed it with the most success. In the Second Anglo-Maratha War, they allied with the Peshwa and Gaekwad, and in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, they made Sindhia their ally.

6. The Company's Espionage System: The Company's espionage system had no match in Asia. They carefully recorded every movement of their enemies, including their strengths, weaknesses, and military methods. The entire diplomacy of the East India Company was based on the 'inputs' provided by their spies. On the other hand, the Marathas were completely ignorant of the Company's activities. The English learned Marathi and other Indian languages, but the Marathas failed to learn English. They had no knowledge of England, its people, its factories, its arms, or its strategies. Wars were fought on the battlefield, but strategies were crafted at the table, which required accurate 'inputs.'